Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada

Information on rituals upon initiation to chieftaincy or during chieftaincy, the reaction of state ministries of chieftaincy affairs to Yoruba chief initiation rituals, and the prevalence and consequences of refusing a Yoruba chieftaincy title and state protection was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

1. Overview of Chieftaincy in Yorubaland

In correspondence with the Research Directorate, an emeritus professor specializing in African cultural anthropology at the University of Birmingham, who has been conducting archival research for 20 years, indicated that there is "a big difference between civic/political chieftaincy and traditional religious/ritual titles in Yorubaland" (Emeritus Professor 14 Oct. 2021). In June 2017, the EU's European Asylum Support Office (EASO) organized a practical cooperation meeting on Nigeria at which David Pratten, an associate professor of social anthropology in Africa and a member of St. Antony's College at the University of Oxford, explained that in Nigeria, there is huge variation in what constitutes a chief, what constituency a chief represents, who can be a chief and how a chief is appointed (Pratten Aug. 2017, 78). According to the same source, when it comes to chiefs, they can sometimes be "rather different institutions" (Pratten Aug. 2017, 78). Similarly, in a telephone interview with the Research Directorate, an associate professor who specializes in African history at Brock University in Canada explained that there are various titles and roles for traditional chiefs in Yorubaland (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a senior researcher at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, who conducts research on ethnic groups and religious groups, stated that

what should be borne in mind in the first instance is that there are two types of chieftaincy titles—prescribed traditional titles with set functions and hierarchies within a given traditional polity and, honorary traditional titles given willingly by the traditional ruler and with no defined functions and hierarchy within the traditional political framework. The other factor that should be borne in mind is the resulting impact of modernization on Yoruba chieftaincy institution. These impacts which generally came by way of Christianity and to some extent Islam strongly diluted the prevalence of some of these practices, notably the ones relating to human sacrifices. (Senior Researcher 30 Oct. 2021)

The Emeritus Professor stated that eminent politicians, civil servants, academics and businessmen "gladly" accept chieftaincy titles from their hometowns and that some of these honorific titles are bestowed on individuals who are associated with the community but who do not necessarily still reside there (Emeritus Professor 14 Oct. 2021). According to the same source, some chieftaincy titles are held by specific lineages, whereas others are a "gift" of the local oba (ruler) (Emeritus Professor 14 Oct. 2021). The Associate Professor also explained that in most cases, the title of chief is inherited but that a "significant [increase]" of bestowed titles that are meritocratic and honorific is being observed (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021).

A researcher at James Cook University in Australia, whose research interests include Indigenous studies, including in Nigeria stated the following in correspondence with the Research Directorate:

Throughout Yorubaland (in Southwestern Nigeria), including other regions in Nigeria, there are several educated holders of chieftaincy titles with strong business interests. Almost every businessman and influential politician attempts to get chieftaincy titles nowadays—a practice largely seen as a common phenomenon in which titles are perceived to be "bought" rather than being earned through hereditary or honorary route. Prominent politicians also amass numerous chieftaincy titles. However, such honorary titles are usually conferred by officially recognised traditional rulers (popularly referred to as "Obas" in Yorubaland).

… Each title (either traditional/hereditary or honorary) is defined by each Yoruba community. As a result, this makes the functions of both traditional and honorary title holders vary across Yoruba communities. Chiefs in Yorubaland perform multiple functions such as dispute settlement, codification of customary laws, organization of festivals and other social activities that promote peace and socio-economic development of their jurisdictions. (Researcher 1 Nov. 2021)

Vanguard, a daily newspaper in Nigeria, reports that the king has the power to create or abolish chieftaincy titles and that he decided to strip one of his kings of his title "over several reasons which included alleged abuse of the title" (Vanguard 6 Oct. 2021). The same source reports that the Yoruba king has stated that he is the "only King in Yorubaland who can confer chieftaincy title to a worthy man or woman to cover the whole of Yorubaland" (Vanguard 19 Jan. 2021). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

At the practical cooperation meeting on Nigeria organized by EASO, Pratten noted that despite the labelling as "'traditional rulers,'" chieftaincy is a modern institution, and the problems and tensions associated with this institution are "directly linked to contemporary trends in the country" (Pratten Aug. 2017, 78). The researcher explained that the chieftaincy institution in Yorubaland and elsewhere in Nigeria embodies traditions but is "somewhat" adapted to modern sociopolitical ideals (Researcher 1 Nov. 2021).

According to Pratten, chieftaincy plays a central role in social organization, "[t]he idea of chiefs as old illiterate custodians of centuries' traditions is very outmoded" and chiefs "are tightly woven into the state constitution and structure" (Pratten Aug. 2017, 78). The same source stated the following regarding chieftaincy:

Chieftaincies on the whole tend to map onto the country's administrative structure that recognises wards, villages, clans, local government areas and states. Parallel courts and councils exist presided over by traditional rulers that are funded by the state. Moreover, many state recognised [chieftaincy] positions are remunerated – meaning that chieftaincies in Nigeria are actually part of the state bureaucracy. (Pratten Aug. 2017, 78)

Pratten also noted that "[c]hiefs and the councils they preside over can control lucrative economic niches" such as security patrols or market permits (Pratten Aug. 2017, 79).

The Associate Professor explained that "chieftaincy is a gerontocratic institution … , but young people are increasingly interested in it and would like to see it more modernized than it is today; this generates that kind of conflicts with some chief councils in Yorubaland" (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021). According to Pratten, the chieftaincy structure is increasingly characterized by ongoing tension between youth and elders (Pratten Aug. 2017, 79). Vanguard also reports a historic event in the city of Lagos whereby a chieftaincy title was conferred on a 5-year-old boy "in recognition of his contributions to the promotion of Yoruba cultural heritage" (Vanguard 21 Aug. 2021).

The Associate Professor indicated further that in some community configurations, the title of chief is combined with the traditional priest or fetish priest [also called shaman] position but only "very rarely" with official government responsibilities (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021). The same source also stated that "some chiefs are involved in activities related to corruption and bribery which are still important in southern-western Nigeria," or are also involved in "ritual killing practices ordered by rich and powerful people who are looking for more wealth and power" (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

2. Rituals upon Initiation to or During Chieftaincy

The researcher noted that chieftaincy titles involve ritual practices that vary from one community to the next and that generally, practices associated with the installation of chieftaincy titles "may involve addressing ancestral spirits and rulers of the community for support, guidance, prayers, blessings and fortification" (Researcher 1 Nov. 2021).

The Emeritus Professor indicated that chieftaincy initiation in Yorubaland does not involve any practices involving human sacrifice or drinking of blood and that "it is a political, not a religious, institution" (Emeritus Professor 14 Oct. 2021). The same source also stated the following regarding local rituals:

Local rituals to do with chieftaincy installation would normally be outside the remit of state authorities but … they would not normally involve any practices that would be regarded as illegal or damaging to participants. (Emeritus Professor 14 Oct. 2021, emphasis in original)

The Associate Professor also stated that he did not have any knowledge of ritual practices involving human sacrifice or blood in Yorubaland and stated that chieftaincy initiation or celebration ceremonies are "rather close to those of the installation of any local governmental representative," accompanied by "classical rituals characterised in the most cases by traditional songs" and "idolatrous invocations of the deities by a local chief priest or fetish priest in order to strengthen the chieftaincy" (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021). According to the Associate Professor, "human sacrifices [have not been] practiced for a long time in Nigeria anyway, and if this was the case in the present days, those practices would be subject to the punishment of death under the Penal Code [1] because that would correspond to a planned murder" (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021). In another correspondence with the Research Directorate, the Senior Researcher also indicated that "[i]n practice, there have been no reported cases of human sacrifice since the advent of the modern age through European colonialism" (Senior Researcher 4 Oct. 2021). In follow-up correspondence, the same source explained that

while the ritual practices of drinking blood and human sacrifice might have dominated the rites of initiation into chieftaincy in pre-colonial and early colonial periods of Yoruba people, these practices do not seem to be in vogue at the present times. … [H]uman sacrifice could still take place but only for the burial and, possibly ritual processes of enthronement of Kings, however this is a matter of secrecy among the initiated officials and cannot therefore be authentically determined. Thus it could rightly be stated that such practices no longer exist for the category of Chieftaincy. (Senior Researcher 30 Oct. 2021)

However, the researcher stated the following:

In many Yoruba towns, the installation of traditional rulers (Oba) involves blood rituals and 'other' ritual practices. Apparently, there is a huge secrecy in the way these rituals are performed, with regards to the installation of Oba and some traditional chieftaincy titles such as "Balogun" (Warlord), "Abore" (Chief Priest), among others. Certain rituals are often performed openly and some secretly. (Researcher 1 Nov. 2021)

The same source stated that in "the pre-modern age, ritual practices were very rampant" but "in the modern age, ritual practices have [declined] due to the influence of Christianity, Islam and modernity itself" (Researcher 1 Nov. 2021). The source added that "[o]verall, animal and human sacrifices still exist in Yorubaland but human sacrifice has reduced in chieftaincies—at least to some reasonable degree" (Researcher 1 Nov. 2021).

3. State Response to Chieftaincy Rituals and Relations

The researcher explained that there is

minimal state reaction to ritual practices in chieftaincy installation because relevant ritual practices are not against the law. In addition, it is very rare to investigate rituals that are not done openly. (Researcher 1 Nov. 2021)

The same source added that there are situations where intervention of state security apparatuses is "unavoidably needed," as in the case of human sacrifice (Researcher 1 Nov. 2021).

According to the Associate Professor, the reactions of the federal government, local governments, and respective ministries to practices relating to chieftaincy are "positive in general" but "there are still tensions linked to the balance of power between local ministry representatives and traditional chiefs" (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021). The Emeritus Professor also explained the relationship between the government authorities [ministries of chieftaincy affairs] and chief priests in the following terms:

Government – both colonial and post-independence – has maintained a basically positive attitude towards traditional chieftaincy politics, but has also always striven to maintain the upper hand. Local obas (rulers of towns or city states) have always tried to maintain their own clout. The result has been a kind of compromise. The state will expect its representatives to have the last word in chieftaincy affairs, but at the same time, as outsiders, state agents can never achieve the support and credibility of the chiefs, nor understand the complexities of local chieftaincy politics. (Emeritus Professor 14 Oct. 2021)

The Senior Researcher explained that

[t]he major function of the State governments regarding Chieftaincy titles as well as kingships is to regulate their functions within the prism of modern government through the enactment of necessary statutory laws regarding conferment and arising disputes. The State government is however not involved or concerned with the rites of conferment or initiation which are strictly customary and exclusive to those whom customs and tradition entrusted with the rights and responsibilities to do so, except where such rites deviate from the laid down procedures and consequently involve dispute. (Senior Researcher 30 Oct. 2021)

Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4. Consequences of Refusing a Yoruba Chieftaincy Title

According to the researcher,

[i]n some situations, individuals may be openly, secretly and spiritually "coerced" or "threatened" to take hereditary chieftaincy titles that are passed on to them through their family lineages. If the potential successor of such chieftaincy title refuses, the community and the family may have no other choice than to force or threaten such person to take the chieftaincy title … because of the shame and the missing of opportunity that such refusal may cause the family of the person. (Researcher 1 Nov. 2021)

Pratten stated the following in response to a question as to whether a person can be compelled to accept a chieftaincy based on their family background:

This is a really interesting question and it's very challenging to answer, precisely because of the … specificity of chieftaincy disputes and how precisely modes of succession sometimes differ from village to village within the same linguistic, ethnic community. … [T]hese are usually quite public offices. To be a head of a village is quite a transparent process. … My experience is that traditional rulers, councils and their courts are held in the open, and people can go along and challenge them. (Pratten Aug. 2017, 82–83)

The Emeritus Professor indicated that most people are "delighted and honoured" to accept the chieftaincy offered to them but also noted that

[s]ome people may hesitate to accept a chieftaincy title because it implies a certain general obligation to serve the community, whether by financial support, personal presence at events, help of various kinds, and so on. (Emeritus Professor 14 Oct. 2021)

The researcher expressed a similar view, explaining that

since the chieftaincy title entails obligatory duties, some individuals may find it difficult to combine these duties with their personal/business/political engagements. As a result, they may refuse such chieftaincy title. (Researcher 1 Nov. 2021)

According to the Emeritus Professor, it is therefore "perfectly possible" to refuse a chieftaincy title in Yorubaland, and there are no consequences except local expressions of disappointment and renewed invitations to accept the title refused (Emeritus Professor 14 Oct. 2021). The Senior Researcher similarly stated that "since chieftaincy titles are not compulsory, no one can be sanctioned for refusing to accept the offer" of a title (Senior Researcher 30 Oct. 2021). The Associate Professor explained that "it is quite possible to refuse a Yoruba chief title without any risk, but the title can be imposed in some cases if it is explicitly provided under wellestablished rules that this title is supposed to be passed from a generation to another one among members of a given and specific family" (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021). According to the source, in this kind of configuration where the title is imposed, some family members of the presumed or proposed successor may put a certain pressure on him and he might become a chief against his own will "so that their descent is not dishonored," because if the successor refuses, their family line could be deprived with regard to that title (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021). The same source also indicated that in rare cases, the "most serious risk" is that the person could also be "forced out" of the local community in the context of the chieftaincy title refusal (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021).

The Associate Professor also indicated that many people, most of them Christian, refuse the Yoruba chief title on religious grounds, because they find that responsibilities related to the chieftaincy are incompatible with their beliefs (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021). The same source explained that in most cases, there are currently no consequences to refusing such a title (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021). Similarly, the researcher stated that "some individuals refuse [a] chieftaincy title because of the connection of such chieftaincy title with traditional religion" and that "refusal of chieftaincy titles is common among Muslims and Christians for religious reasons" (Researcher 1 Nov. 2021). The Senior Researcher also noted that religious convictions are frequently cited when refusing Yoruba chieftaincy titles (Senior Researcher 30 Oct. 2021). The same source stated that if someone refuses a title, the title is "often" passed on to the next candidate (Researcher 30 Oct. 2021).

5. State Protection

At the practical cooperation meeting on Nigeria organized by EASO in June 2017, Pratten stated the following:

There is no special policing provision for the violence and threats to life that chieftaincy disputes – or disputes linked to chiefs – involve. … [T]here is very little by way of standardised legal provision defining the positions of chiefs and their roles. Yes, there are traditional rulers' edicts and councils who enforce them, but ultimately chiefs can be held accountable to the communities they represent. (Pratten Aug. 2017, 79)

The Associate Professor explained that he was not aware of any cases where a person has received death threats and has had to seek protection for having refused a chieftaincy title, but that if this happened, "the federal and local governments would be in a position to mobilize all necessary means in order to help anyone who would need a protection in that way" (Associate Professor 20 Oct. 2021). The researcher mentioned the possibility of state intervention, notably in cases of human sacrifice:

There is an indication if human sacrifice is done openly, the people involved will be arrested and prosecuted. [P]eople who perpetrate this act are often powerful, influential and well-connected chiefs who may eventually have their way and are not arrested. Also, the Nigeria Police Force have been involved in investigating some chiefs, kings and traditional shrines for some offences. Police and state government sometimes intervene in land and chieftaincy disputes or power tussles among chiefs. (Researcher 1 Nov. 2021)

Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

Note

[1] For additional information on the relevant provisions of Nigeria's Criminal Code, see Response to Information Request NGA200791 of November 2021.

References

Associate Professor, Brock University, St. Catharines. 20 October 2021. Telephone interview with the Research Directorate.

Emeritus Professor, University of Birmingham. 14 October 2021. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Pratten, David. August 2017. "Ritual Killings, Cults and Chieftaincy." EASO COI Meeting Report. Nigeria: Practical Cooperation Meeting, 12-13 June 2017. Rome, European Union (EU), European Asylum Support Office (EASO). [Accessed 18 Oct. 2021]

Researcher, James Cook University. 1 November 2021. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Senior Researcher, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. 30 October 2021. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Senior Researcher, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. 4 October 2021. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Vanguard. 6 October 2021. Jimitota Onoyume. "Royal Rumble: Why I Abolished Ologbotsere Chieftaincy Title – Olu of Warri." [Accessed 15 Oct. 2021]

Vanguard. 21 August 2021. Adeola Badru. "5-yr Old Oyo-Born Kid Bags Chieftaincy Title in Lagos." [Accessed 15 Oct. 2021]

Vanguard. 19 January 2021. "Alaafin Confers Chieftaincy Titles on Shina Peller, Agunbiade." [Accessed 15 Oct. 2021]

Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: Associate professor of anthropology and African religious studies at an American university; associate professor at an American university who specializes in African beliefs and religions; associate professor at an American university who specializes in gender in African religions and Yoruba religious practices, including rituals; associate professor at an American university who specializes in traditional African religious practices; associate professor at an American university who specializes in Yoruba religious practices, oath practices and ethnic issues; Canada – Canadian diplomatic representation in Abuja, Nigeria; Catholic Christian priest who has worked with Yoruba traditional chiefs and chief priests and shamans in south-central Nigeria; executive vice-president of a school of public policy at a Nigerian university; former traditional chief of the Yoruba and Igbo who worked with chief priests and shamans; head of the Department of African Studies and Anthropology at an American university; Nigeria – Police Forces, High Commission of Nigeria in Ottawa; professor at an American university who specializes in African history and studies; professor at an American university who specializes in cultural and historical interpretations in West Africa; professor who specializes in ethno-regional and religious conflict in Nigeria at a British university; professor at a Nigerian university who specializes in sociology, criminology and security studies; professor at an American university who specializes in Yoruba diaspora studies; professor emeritus at an American university who specializes in Yoruba-speaking regions and religions in Nigeria; researcher and doctoral student in African studies at a Czech university; researcher with a PhD in social justice education affiliated with a Canadian university who conducted research on widowhood rituals in Nigeria; researcher with a PhD in Sociology who conducted a study on sects in Nigeria; researcher at an Australian university who specializes in African traditions and religions; senior lecturer at a Nigerian university who specializes in African cultural practices and traditional communities; senior lecturer at a Nigerian university who specializes in chieftaincy and ritual practices in Yoruba-speaking regions; senior lecturer at an American university who specializes in Yoruba and African studies; senior researcher at a Nigerian university who specializes in chieftaincy and traditional religions; senior researcher at a Nigerian university who specializes in conflict studies and African ethnic and religious groups; senior researcher at a Nigerian university who specializes in strategic studies, crisis management, sect and ritual killings studies in Nigeria; senior researcher at an American university who specializes in African studies; Yoruba Traditional & Cultural Renaissance.

Internet sites, including: Amnesty International; Australia – Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade; Austria – Austrian Centre for Country of Origin & Asylum Research and Documentation; BBC; Bertelsmann Stiftung; Factiva; France – Office français de protection des réfugiés et apatrides; Freedom House; Human Rights Watch; Netherlands – Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Nigeria – Ministry of Chieftaincy Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Justice, National Human Rights Commission, Nigeria Police Force; Pulse.ng; Swiss Refugee Council; UK – Home Office; UN – Refworld; US – Department of State; Voice of America.